Federal National Party House on the Democratic alternative document.

07-04-2012 08:59 PM Special Alrakubh was signed this evening, the Federal National Party House on the Democratic alternative document, a document in which political forces have agreed to substitute for the period of democratic transition after the fall of the rescue has been ailing were 19 parties and organizations on the document supplied Alrakubh some of them: National Umma Party Federal National Communist Party Popular Congress Party Party of Nazareth Federal UDP Right Arab Baath Party Baath Party, Sudan Conference Sudanese Solidarity trade union Alliance of Political Women Major General White Union of Workers of Forensic Movement to change the Sudan Was postponed the signing of the Constitutional Declaration for further elaboration It is worth mentioning now assess the political forces Seminar House National Umma Party - supplied Street - Omdurman her mother was a large gathering of citizens and shouted slogans calling for the system to drop Document for a Democratic Alternative In the name of God the Merciful Document for a Democratic Alternative Program In terms of understanding the deep phase experienced by our country and the sensitivity that requires everyone to the highest degree of national responsibility towards the development of events in the country, and in light of regional and international issues, our country today, accelerate the pace towards the abyss, driven policies, corruption, tyranny and social injustice, and dissemination of nerve racism and destabilize religious coexistence and social peace and economic collapse and the insistence of the system to impose a single political and cultural in a pluralistic society, the thing that led to the wasting of the dignity of the citizen and the homeland. The total of these policies led to the secession of the south and ignite the war in Darfur and South Kordofan and Blue Nile, Abyei, and pushed the country toward war with the state threatens to widen the south. Thus, the new reality puts everyone in front of the responsibility of a major national need to be addressed including deserve the willingness of struggle and effort and genuine national, to make a real breakthrough in the political scene, stop the signs of the war first, and to achieve the aspirations of the masses of our people crushed by poverty and suffering for a democratic alternative to Tptdr battle of for comprehensive change by all means of peaceful political and public. We are the forces of national consensus, as we reaffirm our commitment to peaceful change Democrat who inspired the traditions of our people tested in the face of dictatorships from a position of national responsibility, we present this program to all the masses of our people and political forces, civil and social with all sectors of traditional and modern, rural and urban areas are committed to the struggle for change, and decryption the link between the state and the ruling party, and ensure the independence of the judiciary and the rule of law, so as to ensure the preservation of the integrity of the Sudanese state from the evil of disintegration and fragmentation. Does not save the country from the case of degradation and failure, and to submit to international trusteeship, but the determination of its people and all the national forces of their own free and Tkacvhm for the establishment of a democratic alternative based on a national project by the complex. , According to the following principles: First, the transition period: ruled by a constitutional declaration begins to form a transitional government and end with the holding of free and fair elections. Second, running the country during the transitional period of a transitional government in which all political forces and factions are committed to and signed the document on the program and the Democratic alternative, taking into account the representation of women, civil society and youth movements and personalities democratic, independent, and the transitional government is committed to the following: A declaration of a ceasefire in the fighting fronts and the release of political prisoners and convicts, and the adoption of dialogue and negotiation to resolve disputes. 2 compliance, and the practice of law, pluralism, intellectual, political, religious, and to respect the reality of cultural pluralism and social components of our people. 3 To ensure the freedom of religion and worship with a commitment not to exploit religion in the conflict or political party to ensure stability and social peace. 4 Bibliography of Federal Government current system, the restructuring of the state, including taking into account the principles of true democracy and guarantee their rights in all areas of power and wealth and the equitable distribution of development opportunities and services and to express cultural components and the establishment of a consensual transitional regime. 5 resettlement of displaced persons and refugees in their areas and to ensure fair compensation, and provide the elements of a decent living for them. 6 obligation to apply the principle of national institutions and a single civil service and uniformed forces. 7 independence of the judiciary and all organs of the judicial and law enforcement agencies. 8 national media outlets, and the independence of universities and freedom of scientific research. 9 central bank independence and to rebuild the state apparatus, the appointment of persons a professional and a national leadership institutions of the civil service and uniformed services in accordance with the standards of competence and citizenship rights and the balance in the participation of the people of Sudan, with the re-separated arbitrarily for a service or adapt themselves to make reparation for the damage caused to them and their families. 10 Regulation of the quality of specialized conferences of political forces and civil society and experts on the economy, education, health, culture and environment ... Etc. and out of the recommendations and detailed programs for the transition period. 11 PROCEDURE comprehensive census as a basis for development and services and to conduct free and fair elections. 12 trials of each human rights violators and corrupt and Mbdda public money, and to compensate victims financially and morally, with upholding the values of truth and reconciliation in accordance with the principles and systems of transitional justice. 13 abolition of all laws restricting freedoms, and that conflict with the international covenants and treaties on human rights and laws enacted alternative consistent with these covenants. 14 empower women politically, economically and in all areas of life, and review all laws and especially the law of public order and personal status to achieve the dignity of women and supports their role in life, while ensuring that women's equality with men in human dignity and rights. 15 National Constitutional Conference. 16 economic reform takes into account the social dimensions, and put an end to corruption and waste and waste of resources in political spending and security, and ensures a priority for spending on health, education, clean drinking water, housing, social welfare, and give utmost care to filter the effects of war in the affected areas so as to achieve balanced development, and recruitment of unemployed youth, especially graduates of universities and colleges. 17 attention to livestock and employment resources for agriculture Baktaiha the ability of the traditional and the rehabilitation of irrigated and irrigated agricultural projects, especially the project of the island. 18 the adoption of legal texts and constitutional mechanism to ensure fair distribution of national income in order to achieve balanced development of socially and regionally and provide services according to the standard population and the poverty rate and level of development in the region. 19 preparation and drafting of a bill agreed democratic elections with the participation of all political forces and civil society organizations, based on proportional representation and the bases of the individual to govern and organize free and fair elections at all levels. 20 to pursue a balanced foreign policy and independent serve the higher interests of the economic, political, and achieve the national security of the country, and working to end the confrontation between Sudan and the international community, and replace it with cooperation in accordance with the principles and provisions of international law and good neighborliness and non-interference in the internal affairs of others to back Sudan's position, the Arab world, Africa and internationally. 21 cases of Darfur: Responding to the demands of the people of Darfur is legitimate: A - participate in all levels of government through the equitable participation of all regions of the country and in all levels of government. B - to compensate the displaced and refugees individually and collectively and the right to ensure the safe return of their land or compensation of places are agreed upon. C - recognizing the right of the people of Darfur project in power and wealth by the population. D - accountability of what is committed in Darfur and other war crimes and crimes against humanity. 22 cases Abyei: stick to the mechanism of peaceful negotiations to resolve the issue of Abyei and all the border areas with the south, and including the negotiation of the leaders of the tribes of the region and the referendum residents, to achieve the benefits of political and security will be settled through peaceful negotiations, including putting an end to the fighting and preserve the common interests of the citizens. 23 cases of South Kordofan and Blue Nile: responding to the demands of the citizens of South Kordofan and Blue Nile, legitimate, political, service and development, and compatibility for their participation in governance, on the basis of political and security agreement puts an end to the fighting. 24 relationship with the State of South Sudan: the conclusion of an agreement between the Sudan and South Sudan on the basis of common interests and historical ties as input to resolve outstanding problems, ensuring a complementary economic and social, especially in the field of water and grazing, oil and trade, and a commitment to the limits of a flexible and address the issues of dual citizenship, and to ensure four freedoms, and the establishment of joint mechanisms between the two countries at all levels of cooperation and coordination, which opens the door to the future restoration of unity on a new basis. Third, the means Take the political struggle of mass peaceful in all its forms (the strike, peaceful demonstration, sit-ins, civil disobedience, uprising, and all methods of the People's Revolution), in order to overthrow the regime and make the transition from the current political situation in the country to develop democracy through a transitional period governed by the program for a Democratic Alternative. As we we resolved to address the problems of our country, this program based on a national solution, we look forward to solidarity with our brothers and the international community support through urgent action, including: the abolition of sanctions, and the exemption of foreign debt, and development support for peace and democratic transformation in Sudan and support owed in accordance with international conventions. We are committed to We the signatories of this program is the adoption of the struggle for democracy and peaceful political public to enforce it, do not claim only that it addresses the hope and shape the future expected the mouthpiece of the conscience of the people and the democratic choice for a democratic alternative independent achieve broader participation of all Sudanese in power and wealth on the basis of full equality, and on the basis of freedoms democracy and human rights, political, economic and social, we present this program for all the people of Sudan and the various Perigord and to contribute to their strength and opinion, and signature. Aware of us that radical change and destruction that could not be its creation without political effort and the struggle of public and in all fields, We, the undersigned, our initial commitment and moral letter and spirit of the provisions of this Charter, a crowd of the energies of the sons and daughters of our people to overcome the national crisis of current for a democratic alternative expresses the aspirations of our people free life in a decent safe and stable, so as to ensure the country's unity, independence and sovereignty and achieve just and comprehensive peace, freedom and equality.

"movimento di protesta in Sudan non sono solo esigente, ma anche far cadere il sistema per cambiare il sistema politico è pieno".

Dr. Mariam al-Mahdi: "movimento di protesta in Sudan non sono solo esigente, ma anche far cadere il sistema per cambiare il sistema politico è pieno" «Dr. Mariam Sadiq al-Mahdi» 07-04-2012 12:43 AM Mariam Sadiq al-Mahdi, la leadership nel "Partito della Nazione" mostre sudanesi, parla del futuro del movimento di protesta nel suo paese, che ha iniziato condannando la situazione di vita e si voltò per far cadere il sistema di reclamo. Faith-Hamoud Come si fa a valutare la situazione in Sudan dopo due settimane di manifestazioni continue di austerità anti-politiche del paese? Ora la situazione in Sudan afferma in ogni momento che le cose si stanno muovendo verso il cambiamento globale che è diventato un requisito per tutti. E arbitri della Convenzione nazionale non nega la necessità del cambiamento, ma stanno provando a modo loro, che dovrebbe tenere questo cambiamento Taudoha. Forse il motivo principale per ritardare l'annuncio del loro governo sulla base di tangenti politiche. Tutto il popolo sudanese, e specialmente giovani ha rotto la barriera della paura, senza mezzi termini, non ritirarsi in cui, in quella che sembrava essere molto chiaro che il sistema ha completamente fallito nel mantenere la dignità umana del Sudan e la fornitura di vita di base a lui. Ti chiamare direttamente per rovesciare il regime? Sì, non continuare a lottare per il cambiamento globale di questo sistema, non intendiamo semplicemente cadere, ma trovare un nuovo sistema. Eravamo tutti d'accordo e convergono sul programma alternativo a tutti i livelli della vita politica, sociale, economica e internazionale, interessa tutte le strutture statali, che individua la Conferenza Nazionale. E speriamo di affrontare questo cambiamento reale e la distruzione di tutte le questioni, compresa la guerra, la pace, e le tensioni politiche, in particolare la questione economica in quanto riflette il fallimento politico nella gestione del paese da parte del partito di governo. Non ti sembra facile soprattutto come abbiamo sentito parlare della violenza stretto e intenso svolto dalle autorità contro i manifestanti? Certo, non è facile, ma molto difficile. Ma il più grande pericolo è la situazione rimanga la stessa. Quindi, siamo coinvolti nella lotta, sono stati sottoposti a molestie intense di persona a livello di comunicazione non è disciplinato e sudanesi religiosa e morale. Ora sentiamo parlare di nuovi tipi di torture di detenuti stanchi e psicologiche e torture fisiche, e questo è previsto. Questo è per voi l'opposizione Kkiedat, ma per quanto riguarda le persone o le normali cittadini manifestanti, ha detto che sono stati portati ai luoghi sconosciuti? Già esposta alla violenza contro giovani con proiettili veri, percosse, e questo è quello che è successo al Sadiq, Abu Bakr, uno dei membri della "Umma Party," che è stato girato ed è ora costretto a letto, perché il proiettile presentata in un luogo molto pericoloso, perché l'accesso alla chirurgia è diventato quasi impossibile. Ci sono anche gli arti rotti come risultato diretto della violenza e coloro che lo scopo di essere stati picchiati, aggrediti i giovani uomini e donne che hanno contrazioni in gomma e gas lacrimogeni che è stato utilizzato come un rimprovero, per non disperdere i manifestanti. Stiamo ora stiamo muovendo verso Spring sudanese? In realtà, la rivoluzione scoppiò in Sudan per lungo tempo in molte zone come il Darfur e altrove, che ha preso le armi esprimere le loro legittime aspirazioni impedito. Ora è il momento di muoversi per realizzare le aspirazioni del popolo sudanese in un cambiamento positivo. France24.

Wife kills her husband beat b (crutch).

Read how a Sudanese woman defend her self she killed her husband while in Italy husbands kill the wife ........................azim

Crimes and incidents Wife kills her husband beat b (crutch) Wife kills her husband beat b (crutch) Threatened to break her legs 07-03-2012 0 Opportunity to bring the media legitimate, and following the lead of the family of the court settlement, and set the session to bring the media forensic your heirs are sons of (8). According to the charge faced by the woman, the husband on the day of the incident was asked to return to her home, and when they enter the house asked her a sum of money and she is beaten (Balbonah) and beat them with a whip and cane, and threatened to break down her legs, and when halfway through the night and immortalized her husband to sleep, his wife carry a cane leaning, which rained down upon him and beating, breaking the bones of the head and neck and legs with three fatal blows, and returned to continue her sleep, in the morning, her daughter discovered the incident and told the family members who were quick to notify the police, which conducted the investigation with them and then refer them for trial. Policy Focus

Bashir regime to negotiate with opposition parties to contain the uprising.

Leading shows: Bashir regime to negotiate with opposition parties to contain the uprising «Revolution until victory» 07-02-2012 02:20 AM London: Mustafa secret Sources told «Middle East» of the existence of dialogues conducted by the Sudanese government and some opposition parties at home, in an attempt to contain the uprising that began two weeks ago, at the time warned the leaders of opposition from the entry in it called the deals and compromises with the ruling regime, and stressed the need to continue in the popular uprising to overthrow the system and find a democratic alternative, meanwhile, accused the Sudanese ambassador in London, protesters have staged a demonstration yesterday in front of the embassy of trying to burn. The sources, who preferred to withhold her name told «Middle East» The Khartoum began to contact with the parties in the opposition in order to contain the popular uprising initiated by students and young people in universities, institutes, and then moved to the neighborhood, and culminated last Friday in what is known collecting «Pussy Elbow», along with demonstrations by Sudanese in several European capitals in front of their embassies, the largest in London, but refused to disclose the sources for the opposition parties that have entered into any communications with the government.

«security officer of Bashir in the grip of rebels».

06-30-2012 12:09 AM KHARTOUM (Union) – The Permanent Representative of Sudan at the United Nations; pay Ambassador Al-Haj, he told the UN Security Council with the consent of his country officially on the Trilateral Initiative for the provision of humanitarian assistance to affected by the situation in Southern Kordofan and Blue Nile. He said in a statement quoted by "sunrise Network" satellite that he sent two letters of Sudan The President of the Security Council and Deputy Secretary-General for Humanitarian Affairs, under which Okhtarhama approval. The Trilateral Initiative approved by the representatives of the Government of Sudan and the Arab League and the African Union and the United Nations Relief and regions according to the nine principles. The principles on the duty of Khartoum in the maintenance of the sovereignty and territorial integrity, regional of the country, and their right to maintain security and enforce the law and its implementation and ensure the right of access to food and humanitarian aid per affected by the conflict, without discrimination and the establishment of the proposal on the immediate cessation of armed conflict through an integrated approach. The principles included the adoption of a joint plan for assistance between the government and the three parties and the adoption of application of the law, regulations and guidelines of humanitarian action to the Government of Sudan in force in the two states, and the government has set a specific action plan and agreed to implement the initiative with three partners. Union The rebels have published his picture and ID number of military composure .. A system in the grip of Champions OF Wad. Nobawi «security officer of Bashir in the grip of rebels» 06-29-2012 10:59 PM Thrown Champions Dr. Nobawi arrested a composure system and published his picture on a large scale as well as the name and ID number of employees of the military security service Bashir Name: Yassir Awad Allah Agab * Rank: Lance Corporal * Card Number: 101404 * Release Date :10-1-2012 expiry date :10-1-2017 The activists appealed to the Sudanese revolution everyone photographed composure system and the dissemination of their names and detailed information about them so they know that the account is coming and will not survive a night away with injustice, no matter how long

FUNJ SULTANATE OF SINNAR.

Religion The Funj had originally practiced a religious mix of Animism and Christianity. Islam also had an important influence, and in 1523 the Sennar monarchy officially converted to Islam, though many elements of the previous beliefs continued. Expansion & Conflilcts Sennar expanded rapidly at the expense of neighboring states. Its power was extended over the Gezira, the Butana, the Bayuda, and southern Kordofan. This caused immediate tensions with its neighbours. Ethiopia felt it was much threatened but its internal problems prevented intervention. Newly Ottoman Egypt also saw the new state as a threat and invaded in force, but then failed to conquer the area, so the Ottoman forces fortified the border and consolidated their hold on northern Nubia. This border would hold until 1821. Relations with Ethiopia were more strained as both states competed over lowlands between their two states. Eventually the Ethiopians moved their capital to nearby Gondar and secured their influence over these areas. Conflicts with the Shilluk to the south continued, but later the two were forced into an uneasy alliance to combat the growing might of the Dinka. Under Sultan Badi II, Sennar defeated the Kingdom of Taqali to the west and made its ruler (styled Woster or Makk) its vassal. Military Culture The armies of Sennar relied most on heavy cavalry: horsemen drawn from the nobility, armed with long broadswords as the toe stirrups they used did not permit the use of lances. These riders were armoured with chain mail while the horses were covered in thick quilts and copper headgear. A greater mass of troops were infantry carrying swords and armoured. This permanent standing army, the largest in East Africa until the 1810s, was garrisoned in castles and forts throughout the sultanate. Reliance on a standing army meant that the professional armies fielded by Sennar were usually smaller, but highly effective against their less organized rivals. Civil Society The sultanate was heavily divided along geographic and racial/ethnic lines. The society was divided into six racial groups. There was a sharp division between those who were the heirs of the ancient kingdom of Alodia and the rest of Sennar. The Alodians adopted the mantle of the defeated Abdallah Jamma and came to be known as the Abdallab. In the late 16th century they rose in revolt under Ajib the Great. Ajib routed the Kings of Sennar, first making them his vassals and then seizing almost the entire kingdom in 1606. The Sennar monarchy regrouped under Adlan I, defeating Ajib in a pair of decisive battles. Eventually a compromise was reached whereby Ajib and his successors would rule the Sennar province of Dongola with a great deal of autonomy. Trade The capital Sennar, prosperous through trade, hosted representatives from all over the Middle East and Africa. The wealth and power of the sultans had long rested on the control of the economy. All caravans were controlled by the monarch, as was the gold supply that functioned as the state's main currency. In time this power was eroded. Foreign currencies became widely used by merchants breaking the power of the monarch to closely control the economy. The thriving trade created a wealthy class of educated and literate merchants, who read widely about Islam and became much concerned about the lack of orthodoxy in the kingdom. The monarchy of Sennar had long been regarded as semi-divine, in keeping with ancient traditions, but this idea ran strongly counter to Islam. Many festivals and rituals also persisted from earlier days, and a number them involved massive consumption of alcohol. These traditions were also abandoned. Decline Sennar was at its peak at the end of the 16th century, but over the seventeenth it began to decline as the power of the monarchy was eroded. The greatest challenge to the authority of the king was the merchant funded ulema who insisted it was rightfully their duty to mete out justice. In 1762 Badi IV was overthrown in a coup launched by Abu Likayik of the red Hamaj from the northeast of the country. Abu Likayik installed another member of the royal family as his puppet sultan and ruled as regent. This began long conflict between the Funj sultans attempting to reassert their independence and authority and the Hamaj regents attempting to maintain control of the true power of the state. These internal divisions greatly weakened the state and in the late 18th century Mek Adlan II, son of Mek Taifara, took power during a turbulent time at which a Turkish presence was being established in the Funj kingdom. The Turkish ruler, Al-Tahir Agha, married Khadeeja, daughter of Mek Adlan II. This paved the way for the assimilation of the Funj into the Ottoman Empire. In 1821, Ismail bin Muhammad Ali the general and son of the nominally Ottoman khedive of Egypt, Muhammad Ali, led an army into Sennar; he encountered no resistance from the last king, whose realm was promptly absorbed into Ottoman Egypt. The region was subsequently absorbed into the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan and the independent Republic of Sudan on that country's independence in 1956. Rulers of Sennar A king of Sennar, 1821 The rulers of Sennar held the title of Mek (sultan). Their regnal numbers vary from source to source.[11][12] • Amara Dunqas 1503-1533/4 (AH 940) • Nayil 1533/4 (AH 940)-1550/1 (AH 957) • Abd al-Qadir I 1550/1 (AH 957)-1557/8 (AH 965) • Abu Sakikin 1557/8 (AH 965)-1568 • Dakin 1568-1585/6 (AH 994) • Dawra 1585/6 (AH 994)-1587/8 (AH 996) • Tayyib 1587/8 (AH 996)-1591 • Unsa I 1591-1603/4 (AH 1012) • Abd al-Qadir II 1603/4 (AH 1012)-1606 • Adlan I 1606-1611/2 (AH 1020) • Badi I 1611/2 (AH 1020)-1616/7 (AH 1025) • Rabat I 1616/7 (AH 1025)-1644/5 • Badi II 1644/5-1681 • Unsa II 1681–1692 • Badi III 1692–1716 • Unsa III 1719–1720 • Nul 1720–1724 • Badi IV 1724–1762 • Nasir 1762–1769 • Isma'il 1768–1776 • Adlan II 1776–1789 • Awkal 1787–1788 • Tayyib II 1788–1790 • Badi V 1790 • Nawwar 1790–1791 • Badi VI 1791–1798 • Ranfi 1798–1804 • Agban 1804–1805 • Badi VII 1805–1821 Hamaj regents • Abu Likayik – 1769-1775/6 • Badi walad Rajab – 1775/6-1780 • Rajab 1780-1786/7 • Nasir 1786/7-1798 • Idris wad Abu Likayik – 1798–1804 • Adlan wad Abu Likayik – 1804–1805 See also • List of Sunni Muslim dynasties References 1. ^ Ofcansky, Thomas. "The Funj". Sudan: A country study (Helen Chapin Metz, ed.). Library of Congress Federal Research Division (Research completed June 1991). 2. ^ McHugh, Neil (1994). Holymen of the Blue Nile: The Making of an Arab-Islamic Community in the Nilotic Sudan, 1500–1850. Series in Islam and Society in Africa. Evanston, IL: Northwestern University Press. p. 9. ISBN 978-0-8101-1069-4. http://books.google.com/books?id=FJVh-uUNSAkC&pg=PA9. "The spread of Arabic flowed not only from the dispersion of Arabs but from the unification of the Nile by a government, the Funj sultanate, that utilized Arabic as an official means of communication, and from the use of Arabic as a trade language." 3. ^ Trimingham, J. Spencer (1996). "Islam in Sub-Saharan Africa, till the 19th century". The Last Great Muslim Empires. History of the Muslim World, 3. Abbreviated and adapted by F. R. C. Bagley (2nd ed.). Princeton, NJ: Markus Wiener Publishers. p. 167. ISBN 978-1-55876-112-4. http://books.google.com/books?id=cPlP5Y4of7AC&pg=PA167. "The date when the Funj rulers adopted Islam is not known, but must have been fairly soon after the foundation of Sennār, because they then entered into relations with Muslim groups over a wide area." 4. ^ Welch, Galbraith (1949) (snippet view). North African Prelude: The First Seven Thousand Years. New York: W. Morrow. p. 463. OCLC [//www.worldcat.org/oclc/413248 413248]. http://books.google.com/books?id=RH1yAAAAMAAJ&q=great+council. Retrieved 12 August 2010. "The government was semirepublican; when a king died the great council picked a successor from among the royal children. Then—presumably to keep the peace—they killed all the rest." 5. ^ "فرمان سلطاني إلى محمد علي بتقليده حكم السودان بغير حق التوارث [Sultanic Firman to Muhammad Ali Appointing Him Ruler of the Sudan Without Hereditary Rights]" (in Arabic). Bibliotheca Alexandrina: Memory of Modern Egypt Digital Archive. http://modernegypt.bibalex.org/TxtViewer/TextViewer.aspx?ID=20038&type=Document. Retrieved 12 August 2010. 6. ^ Avakov, Alexander V. (2010). Two Thousand Years of Economic Statistics: World Population, GDP, and PPP. New York: Algora Publishing. p. 18. ISBN 978-0-87586-750-2. http://books.google.com/books?id=kRZ6Rw5ebLAC&pg=PA18. 7. ^ Anderson, Julie R. (2008). "A Mamluk Coin from Kulubnarti, Sudan" (PDF). British Museum Studies in Ancient Egypt and Sudan (10): p. 68. http://www.britishmuseum.org/pdf/Anderson.pdf. Retrieved 12 August 2010. "Much further to the south, the Funj Sultanate based in Sennar (1504/5–1820), did not mint coins and the markets did not normally use coinage as a form of exchange. Foreign coins themselves were commodities and frequently kept for jewellery. Units of items such as gold, grain, iron, cloth and salt had specific values and were used for trade, particularly on a national level." 8. ^ Pinkerton, John (1814). "Poncet's Journey to Abyssinia". A General Collection of the Best and Most Interesting Voyages and Travels in All Parts of the World. Volume 15. London: Longman, Hurst, Rees, and Orme. p. 71. OCLC [//www.worldcat.org/oclc/1397394 1397394]. http://books.google.com/books?id=LiAnAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA71. 9. ^ Ogot 1999, p. 91 10. ^ Holt 1975, pp. 40–42 11. ^ MacMichael, H. A. (1922). "Appendix I: The Chronology of the Fung Kings". A History of the Arabs in the Sudan and Some Account of the People Who Preceded Them and of the Tribes Inhabiting Dárfūr. Volume II. Cambridge University Press. p. 431. OCLC [//www.worldcat.org/oclc/264942362 264942362]. http://www.archive.org/stream/ahistoryarabsin00macmgoog#page/n475/mode/1up. 12. ^ Holt, Peter Malcolm (1999). "Genealogical Tables and King-Lists". The Sudan of the Three Niles: The Funj Chronicle 910–1288 / 1504–1871. Islamic History and Civilization, 26. Leiden: BRILL. pp. 182–186. ISBN 978-90-04-11256-8. http://books.google.com/books?id=nF1hWJQusxIC&pg=PA182. Bibliography • Holt, Peter Malcolm (1975). "Chapter 1: Egypt, the Funj and Darfur". In Fage, J. D.; Oliver, Roland. The Cambridge History of Africa. Volume 4: from c. 1600 to c. 1790. Cambridge University Press. pp. 14–57. ISBN 978-0-521-20413-2. http://books.google.com/books?id=hUg0E8Op6UUC&pg=PA14. • Ogot, B. A., ed. (1999). "Chapter 7: The Sudan, 1500–1800". General History of Africa. Volume V: Africa from the Sixteenth to the Eighteenth Century. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. pp. 89–103. ISBN 978-0-520-06700-4. http://books.google.com/books?id=Fw-1DOCXUgsC&pg=PA89. • R.S. O'Fahey and J.L Spaulding: Kingdoms of the Sudan Studies of African History Vol. 9, Methuen, London 1974, ISBN 0-416-77450-4 • Arthur E. Robinson, "Some Notes on the Regalia of the Fung Sultans of Sennar", Journal of the Royal African Society, 30 (1931), pp. 361–376

Singa the middle of FUNJ SINNAR state of Funj.

Singa Hominid Skull: The Singa (Sudan) calvaria has been interpreted previously as a terminal Pleistocene modern human fossil, perhaps related to the Bushman of Southern Africa. Here we report new mass-spectrometric U–Th dates for the calcrete deposit enclosing the fossil teeth and the calvaria itself and new electron spin resonance (ESR) dates for associated dental materials. The new data constrain the age of the hominid to at least 133 & 2 ka. Together with the preferred linear uptake (LU) ESR dates, the U–Th data confirm that the intriguing mixture of modern and archaic characteristics in the Singa specimen date from isotope stage 6. Far from being a modern human fossil, it represents a rare example of an archaic African population which may have been ancestral to all modern Homo sapiens. Morphological and genetic evidence suggest that Homo sapiens originated in Africa some200–130 ka ago, but these critically important African populations remain poorly known and dated. A well-preserved hominid fossil from Singa, Sudan, previously supposed to represent a modern specimen (Rightmire, 1984; Clark, 1988) may represent such a population. The Singa fossil was discovered in 1924 by Bond, eroding out of a calcrete deposit in the west bank of the Blue Nile, some 320 km south east of Khartoum. Mammalian fauna and Palaeolithic artefacts collected from the locality and from Abu Hugar, some 15 km to the south yielded extinct, possibly Upper Pleistocene fauna (Bate, 1951). Prior to 1990, a radiocarbon date of ca. 17 ka on a crocodile tooth from Abu Hugar was the only absolute date available. Thus, the Singa hominid was regarded as ‘‘proto-Bushman’’ by Woodward (1938), and since then it has been attributed to modern H. sapiens. However, a have emphasized its archaic morphological and metrical features, and further study has supported Brothwell’s view that the unusual shape of the parietals might be related to pathology (Stringer et al., 1985). Preliminary electron spin resonance (ESR) dates on an associated Equus and bovid tooth from the Singa site (Grün & Stringer, 1991) had suggested an oxygen isotope stage 5–6 age, but these dates remained equivocal due to large discrepancies between early (EU) and linear (LU) uranium uptake models, and the uncertain contemporaneity of the dated teeth and the calvaria. Here we present new mass-spectrometric U–Th dates for the calcrete matrix found adhering to the external surface of the calvaria and enclosing associated mammal teeth. Unlike dental materials (e.g. enamel, dentine) which acquire uranium subsequent to burial, calcretes incorporate uranium into the calcite lattice at the time of deposition, thereby eliminating a major source of uncertainty which hinders U–Th and ESR dating of fossil teeth. Calcrete deposition clearly post-dated the burial of the fossil material and deposition may have continued over a period of time, implying that the U–Th dates reported here are minimum estimates for the age of the Singa hominid. Cemetery 117 at Jebel Sahaba: see attached photo above Cemetery 117 (also Site 117) is an ancient cemetery discovered in 1964 by a team led by Fred Wendorf near the northern border of Sudan. The remains discovered there were determined to be around 13,140 to 14,340 years old. The original project that discovered the cemetery was the UNESCO High Dam Salvage Project. This project was a direct response to the raising of the Aswan Dam which stood to destroy or damage many sites along its path. It is often cited as the oldest known evidence of warfare. The site comprises three cemeteries, two of which are called Jebel Sahaba, one on either side of the Nile river and the third cemetery being called Tushka. 59 bodies were recovered at Cemetery 117, as well as numerous other fragmented remains. There were twenty-four females and nineteen males over nineteen years of age, as well as thirteen children ranging in age from infancy to fifteen years old. Three additional bodies were also discovered, but their age and sex could not be determined due to damage and missing pieces. The skeletons were dated using radiocarbon dating and were found to have been approximately 13,740 years old. Of the people buried in Jebel Sahaba, about forty percent died of violent wounds. Pointed stone projectiles were found in their bodies at places that suggest the bodies had been attacked by spears or arrows. The wounds were located around the sternum, abdomen, back, and skull (through the lower jaw or neck). The lack of bony calluses, a natural result of healing around these types of wounds, indicates that the attacks were most likely fatal. The bodies and any other artifacts recovered by the UNESCO High Dam Salvage Project were recently donated by Fred Wendorf to the British Museum. This collection includes skeletal and fauna remains, lithics, pottery, and environmental samples as well as the full archive of Wendorf's notes, slides, and other material during the dig. North and South: Changing climates and environments Across Africa the Early Holocene wetter phase brought on much more favourable conditions within the Saharan region following its hyperarid phase. Higher rainfall brought high lake levels in Ethiopia and Chad, probably reaching their maximum extent around 8–9000 years ago. Lake Chad itself was greatly enlarged covering a massive area of some c.350,000km2. Within the Middle Nile, high flood levels have been identified along the White Nile (Adamson et al. 1982) with wide areas flooded during the annual floods and extensive swamps and lakes remaining after the flood receded. The clay plains of the Gezira region also saw a number of braided river channels running west of the present course of the Blue Nile (Adamson 1982). Areas susceptible to high and erratic flooding are unlikely to have been attractive to settlement. The northward shift in the monsoon belt and movement of vegetation zones which came in its wake provided the circumstances for a re-colonization of the once arid southern Sahara by populations from the south. The archaeological evidence for this will be explored in the next section. By the mid-Holocene however, conditions were becoming drier with the gradual southward shift in rainfall belts. Within this process there have been many fluctuations and as more well-dated environmental data are being accumulated, more detailed environmental reconstructions are becoming possible. Such environmental changes can also be tracked in the archaeological record. Large suites of radio- carbon dates now allow us to trace changing patterns of occupation in the deserts west of the Nile (Kuper 1989) and their ultimate abandonment. Much work has been concentrated in the western deserts of Egypt and much has been made of the possible consequences of such environmental changes on the Egyptian Lower Nile and ultimately for the ‘origins of the Egyptian civilization’. While often prominent in the literature, what was happening so far north is perhaps of rather peripheral importance to our main area of study. Instead we need to look much further south, to central Sudan. General References: • Arkell. A. J. 1961 The History of the Sudan. From the Earliest Times to 1821 (2nd edn) London: Athlone Press. • Arkell, A. J., Bate, D. M. A., Wells, L. H. & Lacaille, A. D. (1951). Fossil Mammals of Africa Vol. 2, pp. 1–50. London: British Museum Natural History. • Clark, J. D. (1988). The Middle Stone Age of East Africa and the beginnings of regional identity. J. World Pre-Hist 2, 235–305. • Wendorf, F. (ed.) (1968) The Prehistory of Nubia. 2 vols, Taos: SMU Press. • Woodward, A. S. (1938). A fossil skull of an ancestral Bushman from the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan. Antiquity 12, 193–195.